AP US Government & Politics Key Terms & Vocabulary

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17th Amendment (1913)

Established direct popular election of U.S. senators, replacing selection by state legislatures. It changed who you vote for, not who can vote.

24th Amendment (1964)

Eliminated poll taxes in federal elections, killing a fee states had used to suppress low-income and minority voters that the 15th Amendment's race-only ban could not reach.

26th Amendment (1971)

Lowered the voting age to 18, driven by the 'old enough to fight, old enough to vote' argument from the Vietnam draft.

A

Affirmative Action

Policies meant to remedy past discrimination by considering race, sex, or other traits in hiring and admissions. Its constitutionality under equal protection is heavily litigated.

Agenda Setting

The media's power to shape what issues the public sees as important by choosing which stories to cover and emphasize. It affects what people think about, not what they think.

Agents of Political Socialization

The sources that shape a person's political views: family (earliest and strongest), schools, peers, mass media, and social environments.

Amicus Curiae Brief

A 'friend of the court' document an interest group files to give justices extra information and arguments on a case it is not a party to. Shows groups can target the judicial branch, not just Congress.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of ratification who feared a powerful central government would threaten liberty and state power. Their pressure won the Bill of Rights as a condition of ratification.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to review and revise the decision of a lower court. Most of the Supreme Court's work is appellate.

Article III

The constitutional provision establishing the judicial branch, including the Supreme Court. The textual foundation of federal court power.

Article V

The Constitution's amendment process: proposal by two-thirds of both houses of Congress (or a national convention) and ratification by three-fourths of the states. The high bar keeps the document stable but adaptable.

Articles of Confederation

America's first national framework (1781), which created a weak central government with no power to tax, raise an army, or regulate commerce. Its failures drove the move to a new constitution.

B

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Opened the door to federal court review of redistricting by establishing 'one person, one vote,' addressing unequal district populations. Made malapportionment a justiciable issue.

Benchmark Poll

A poll taken at the start of a campaign to establish a baseline read on a candidate, so later changes can be measured against it.

Bicameralism

A two-chamber legislature; in Congress, the population-based House and the equal-representation Senate. The structure forces compromise to pass any law.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments, added in 1791 to win Anti-Federalist support for ratification. They enumerate specific protections for individual liberties against government.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002

A federal law that banned soft money to national parties and added the 'Stand by Your Ad' provision requiring candidates to say 'I approve this message.'

Block Grants

Federal funds given for broad purposes with few strings attached. Preferred by states because they preserve local flexibility.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Held that race-based school segregation violates the Equal Protection Clause, overturning 'separate but equal.' The legal turning point of the civil rights movement.

Brutus No. 1

The leading Anti-Federalist essay warning that a large, distant central government would lose touch with citizens and crush liberty. The counterpoint to Federalist No. 10.

Bully Pulpit

The president's use of the office's visibility to rally public opinion and pressure Congress. Theodore Roosevelt's term for the presidency's persuasive power.

Bureaucracy

The departments, agencies, commissions, and corporations that implement and enforce federal policy. The unelected machinery that turns laws into action.

C

Cabinet

The heads of executive departments who advise the president and run major agencies. Members require Senate confirmation.

Candidate-Centered Campaigns

The shift in which the public focuses on the candidate rather than the party, weakening the party's role in nominating candidates as communication technology lets candidates bypass the party machine.

Categorical Grants

Federal funds locked to specific, narrow purposes with strict conditions. Preferred by the national government because they maximize federal control; the most common grant type.

Caucus

A closed meeting where party members pick a nominee through open, in-person discussion and public declaration, rather than the secret ballots used in a primary.

Checks and Balances

The system giving each branch tools to limit the others — vetoes, overrides, confirmations, judicial review. Ensures no branch becomes too powerful.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Held that political spending by corporations, associations, and unions is protected First Amendment speech, allowing unlimited independent expenditures. Ties money to free speech and connects to Federalist No. 10's fear of factions.

Civil Liberties

Constitutionally guaranteed freedoms that protect individuals from arbitrary government interference, like speech and religion. Found mostly in the Bill of Rights.

Civil Rights

Protections against discrimination based on traits like race, sex, or religion, guaranteeing equal treatment under law. Rooted in the Equal Protection Clause and acts of Congress.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs, and pushed school integration. The signature legislative win of the civil rights movement.

Clear and Present Danger

A standard allowing speech to be restricted when it poses a genuine, immediate threat, originating in Schenck v. United States. A limit on free expression during emergencies.

Closed Primary

A primary in which only voters registered with the party may participate in choosing its nominee.

Cloture

The Senate procedure to end a filibuster and force a vote, typically requiring 60 votes. The main tool against endless debate.

Co-optation (of Third Parties)

When a major party absorbs a third party's popular issue into its own platform, removing voters' reason to support the third party. It explains how third parties influence policy without winning.

Commerce Clause

Gives Congress power to regulate interstate commerce. Its broad and narrow readings have been a central battleground over the size of federal power.

Committee of the Whole

A House mechanism that lowers the quorum and loosens rules to speed up debate on a bill. A workaround for the chamber's large size.

Compliance Monitoring

Oversight ensuring that funds are spent properly and regulations are followed. A practical but resource-heavy check on implementation.

Concurrent Powers

Powers shared by both national and state governments, such as taxing, making laws, and building roads. Why both the IRS and your state can tax the same paycheck.

Conference Committee

A temporary joint committee that reconciles differences between House and Senate versions of the same bill. The final step before a unified bill goes to the president.

Congressional Oversight

Congress's monitoring of the bureaucracy through hearings, investigations, and budget control to ensure laws are implemented as intended. A key check on executive agencies.

Conservative Ideology

Generally favors fewer market regulations and less national government involvement on social issues, leaving more responsibility to the states.

Critical (Realigning) Election

An election in which a bloc of voters durably shifts party loyalty, locking in a new majority coalition for years. Only durable change counts, not just a close or high-turnout race.

D

Declaration of Independence (1776)

Jefferson's document justifying the break from Britain by asserting natural rights and popular sovereignty. It's the philosophical statement of why government exists.

Delegate Model

A representation style where a legislator votes the way their constituents want, acting as their direct agent. The opposite of the trustee.

Discharge Petition

A House procedure letting a majority force a bill out of a committee that's refusing to act on it. Rarely successful but a check on committee chairs.

Discretionary Authority

The leeway Congress delegates to agencies to decide how to implement vague laws. Lets experts fill in the details legislators leave blank.

Discretionary Spending

Budget spending Congress approves annually for things like defense, education, and infrastructure. It shrinks as mandatory entitlement costs grow.

Divided Government

When one party controls the presidency and another controls at least one chamber of Congress. Often intensifies partisanship and gridlock.

Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization (2022)

Overturned Roe, holding the Constitution confers no right to abortion and returning regulation to the states. A landmark reversal of precedent.

Due Process Clause

Constitutional guarantee that government can't deprive a person of life, liberty, or property without fair procedures (Fifth Amendment for federal, Fourteenth for states). The vehicle for both incorporation and substantive rights.

E

Echo Chamber

When consumer-driven, ideologically oriented media and algorithms feed people only views they already hold, narrowing exposure to opposing ideas and weakening democratic debate.

Electoral College

The body that actually elects the president via state electors, most awarded winner-take-all. Because it counts electoral votes, not the national popular total, the popular-vote winner can still lose.

Elite Democracy

A model emphasizing limited participation, where a small number of educated or wealthy elites make most political decisions. The Electoral College reflects this filtered approach.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

Ruled that state-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause, even if voluntary and nondenominational. Kept official religion out of classrooms.

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution as belonging to the national government, like coining money and declaring war. Also called expressed or delegated powers.

Equal Protection Clause

The Fourteenth Amendment guarantee that states treat people equally under the law. The legal foundation of the civil rights movement.

Equality of Opportunity

The belief that all people deserve an equal chance to compete, even if they end up with unequal results. Both liberals and conservatives claim it but disagree on what 'equal' requires.

Establishment Clause

The First Amendment clause barring government from establishing or endorsing religion. The basis for separating church and state.

Exclusionary Rule

Bars evidence obtained through an illegal search or seizure from being used at trial. Enforces the Fourth Amendment by removing the incentive to violate it.

Executive Agreement

An informal international deal between the president and a foreign leader that doesn't require Senate approval, unlike a treaty. Expands presidential foreign-policy reach.

Executive Office of the President

The cluster of staff and agencies, like the White House staff and OMB, that directly support the president. The president's institutional support system.

Executive Order

A presidential directive managing the federal government that carries the force of law, based on vested executive power or congressional delegation. A way around an uncooperative Congress.

Exit Poll

A poll of voters as they leave the polling place, prized for explaining why people voted the way they did.

F

Faction

Any group of citizens united by a common interest adverse to the rights of others or the community's good. Madison saw factions as inevitable, so he aimed to control their effects, not eliminate them.

Federal Reserve (The Fed)

The independent agency that runs U.S. monetary policy, adjusting interest rates to chase maximum employment and stable prices. Deliberately separate from the elected branches.

Federalism

A system dividing power between a national government and state governments, with each holding some independent authority. The ongoing tug-of-war over that balance defines much of American politics.

Federalist No. 10

Madison's argument that a large republic is the best defense against the 'mischiefs of faction' because it dilutes any single group's power. Core text for the pluralist model.

Federalist No. 51

Madison's essay explaining how separation of powers and checks and balances guard against tyranny — 'ambition must be made to counteract ambition.' Famous for 'if men were angels.'

Federalist No. 70

Hamilton's argument for a single, energetic executive as essential to national security and effective administration. The classic case for a strong presidency.

Federalist No. 78

Hamilton's essay defending an independent judiciary with life tenure and laying the groundwork for judicial review. Calls the courts the 'least dangerous branch.'

Federalists

Supporters of ratifying the Constitution who wanted a strong central government. Authored the Federalist Papers to defend the new system.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic of prolonging debate to delay or block a vote on a bill. Only a cloture vote can end it.

First Amendment

Protects freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. The cornerstone of American expressive and religious liberty.

Fiscal Policy

Spending and taxation actions taken by Congress and the president to influence economic conditions, including Keynesian (boost demand) and supply-side approaches.

Fourteenth Amendment

Post-Civil War amendment guaranteeing due process and equal protection against state action. The engine of incorporation and civil rights.

Free Enterprise

The value that the market, not the government, should determine prices, products, and services. It is specifically about economic outcomes, not personal independence.

Free Exercise Clause

The First Amendment clause protecting individuals' right to practice their religion. It can clash with neutral laws of general applicability.

Free Rider Problem

When people enjoy the benefits an interest group wins (like cleaner air) without joining or paying dues, which starves broad-benefit groups of resources.

Free Speech vs. Fair Elections

The core constitutional tension in campaign finance: whether limiting money protects competitive, equal elections or unconstitutionally restricts First Amendment speech.

G

Generational Effect

When a shared formative experience marks an entire age cohort and tends to stick for life, like Depression-era Americans trusting government intervention. Tied to the era you grew up in.

Gerrymandering

Drawing district lines to favor one party or group, often in bizarre shapes. The manipulation of maps to lock in political advantage.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Held that states must provide an attorney to defendants who can't afford one in felony cases, incorporating the Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Guaranteed legal representation regardless of wealth.

Globalization

The growing interconnectedness of the world that moves values, not just goods, across borders. It means U.S. political culture both shapes and is shaped by other countries.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

The deal that created a bicameral Congress — a House based on population and a Senate giving each state equal votes. It bridged the large-state vs. small-state representation fight.

Gridlock

A standstill where Congress can't pass legislation due to lack of consensus, often from partisanship or divided government. The frequent result of polarization.

Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)

Established a constitutional right to privacy by striking down a ban on contraceptives for married couples. The launchpad for later privacy-based decisions.

H

Horse-Race Journalism

Election coverage fixated on poll standings and who is 'ahead' rather than candidates' qualifications or platforms, which can distort how voters evaluate them.

House of Representatives

The 435-member chamber where seats are apportioned by state population and all members face election every two years. Debate is more formal and revenue bills must start here.

I

Impeachment

The process by which the House formally charges a federal official with misconduct; removal requires conviction by a two-thirds Senate vote. A constitutional check on abuse of power.

Implied Powers

Powers not spelled out but reasonably inferred from the Necessary and Proper Clause to carry out enumerated powers. The basis for much of the federal government's modern reach.

Incumbency Advantage

The high reelection rate of sitting officeholders, fueled by name recognition, a track record, and established fundraising. It is especially strong in congressional races.

Individualism

The core American value that each person can shape their own life and destiny through the choices they make. It pushes toward self-reliance over reliance on government.

Interest Group

An organization that pressures officials on policy without running its own candidates. It can lobby, draft legislation, mobilize members, and file amicus briefs.

Iron Triangle

A stable, mutually beneficial alliance among a congressional committee, a bureaucratic agency, and an interest group in a policy area. Locks in influence and resists outside change.

Issue Network

A looser, broader, shifting web of many actors influencing a policy area, in contrast to the tight, fixed three corners of an iron triangle.

J

Judicial Activism

A philosophy where judges are willing to strike down laws and overturn precedent to address societal problems. Sees the Court as an agent of change.

Judicial Restraint

A philosophy where judges defer to elected branches and existing precedent, striking down laws only when clearly unconstitutional. Prioritizes stability over change.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to strike down laws or executive actions that violate the Constitution. Established in Marbury, it's the judiciary's primary check.

K

Keynesian Economics

A fiscal approach that uses government spending and tax cuts to boost demand and pull an economy out of a slump.

L

Letter from a Birmingham Jail (1963)

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s defense of nonviolent civil disobedience, arguing 'injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.' A foundational civil rights document.

Liberal Ideology

Generally favors more government regulation of the marketplace and more national government action on social issues like education and public health.

Libertarian Ideology

Favors minimal government in both the economy and personal life, intervening only to protect property rights and individual liberty. The 'mixed' pattern (conservative on economics, liberal on social issues) is the giveaway.

Life Cycle Effect

When political priorities shift as a person moves through life stages, like a voter caring about free college at 19 but lower taxes and schools at 40. Tied to current life stage, not birth year.

Life Tenure

Federal judges serve 'during good behavior,' effectively for life, insulating them from political pressure. Lets the Court issue unpopular rulings — but fuels debate over accountability.

Limited Government

The idea that a government's power is not absolute — it's bound by law and the Constitution. Enforced through separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism, and republicanism.

Linkage Institutions

The four channels that connect citizens to government and carry their preferences to policymakers: political parties, interest groups, elections, and the media. They are bridges, not parts of government.

Logrolling

The trading of votes among legislators — 'support my bill and I'll support yours.' Greases the wheels of coalition-building.

M

Mandates

Requirements the national government imposes on states, sometimes without funding them ('unfunded mandates'). A key federalism friction point.

Mandatory Spending

Budget spending required by law for entitlement programs like Social Security, Medicare, and Medicaid. It's locked in and crowds out discretionary spending as costs rise.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review by declaring a law unconstitutional for the first time. The single most important case for the Court's power.

Margin of Error

The range within which a poll's true population value likely falls. A lead smaller than the margin is a statistical tie, so a '52% plus or minus 3' result could really be 49-55%.

Mass Media

The outlets that deliver political information to the public and serve as a linkage institution, shaping what citizens know and consider important.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Upheld Congress's implied power to create a national bank and barred states from taxing it, citing the Necessary and Proper and Supremacy Clauses. A cornerstone of broad federal power.

McDonald v. Chicago (2010)

Incorporated the Second Amendment against the states via the Fourteenth Amendment, striking down a city handgun ban. Extended gun rights nationwide.

Media Bias

Perceived ideological slant in news coverage. As outlets multiplied, the bias-and-ownership debate grew, making it harder for citizens to separate credible reporting from partisan framing.

Merit System

Hiring and promoting civil servants based on qualifications and competitive exams rather than political loyalty. Designed to make the bureaucracy professional and neutral.

Midterm Elections

Congressional elections held without a presidential race. They draw lower, more partisan turnout than presidential years, which tends to reinforce the incumbency advantage.

Miranda Rule

Requires police to inform suspects of their rights — to remain silent and to an attorney — before interrogation. Protects Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights during custody.

Modern Campaigns

Campaigns defined by dependence on professional consultants, rising costs and intensive fundraising, long election cycles, and heavy reliance on social media.

Monetary Policy

Actions by the Federal Reserve to influence interest rates and broader economic conditions. The Fed is independent and targets maximum employment and price stability.

N

Natural Rights

Rights every person is born with — life, liberty, and property — that no government can legitimately take away. The Declaration of Independence builds its whole case for revolution on this idea.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Also called the Elastic Clause, it lets Congress make laws needed to execute its enumerated powers. The source of implied powers and federal expansion.

New York Times Co. v. United States (1971)

The Pentagon Papers case, which rejected the government's attempt at prior restraint over leaked classified war documents. Reinforced a heavy presumption against pre-publication censorship.

Non-Response Bias

When certain groups are systematically less likely to answer a poll, so the sample stops mirroring the population. It is about WHO refuses, not what answer they give.

O

Open Primary

A primary in which any registered voter may vote in one party's contest regardless of their own registration, but only one party's ballot.

Opinion Poll

A poll that gauges general public views on issues, as opposed to a baseline or tracking measure focused on a candidate.

Original Jurisdiction

The authority of a court to hear a case for the first time, with facts, evidence, and often a jury. Trial courts have it; the Supreme Court has it only in limited cases.

P

Participatory Democracy

A model emphasizing broad, direct citizen involvement in politics — town halls, ballot initiatives, mass participation. The most 'bottom-up' of the three democracy models.

Partisan Media

News outlets that tailor coverage to an ideological audience, fueling debates over media bias and the impact of media ownership.

Party Platform

The formal statement of a party's positions and goals. Democratic platforms generally align with liberal positions and Republican platforms with conservative ones, but only 'generally.'

Party Realignment

The lasting shift of a group of voters from one party to another that results from a critical election.

Patronage (Spoils System)

Awarding government jobs based on political loyalty rather than merit. The Pendleton Act curtailed it in favor of the merit system.

Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883)

Established the merit system for federal hiring, ending wholesale patronage. Made most bureaucratic jobs competitive and protected from politics.

Pluralist Democracy

A model where organized interest groups compete and bargain to shape policy, so power is dispersed among many groups rather than concentrated. Federalist No. 10's vision of factions checking factions.

Pocket Veto

An indirect veto that occurs when the president takes no action on a bill within 10 days while Congress adjourns, killing it. Unlike a regular veto, it can't be overridden.

Polarization

The movement of political attitudes toward ideological extremes, with parties drifting apart. Makes compromise and governing harder.

Political Action Committee (PAC)

A committee that contributes directly to candidates but faces strict contribution limits.

Political Culture

The shared set of democratic ideals, principles, and core values that define a nation's politics. U.S. political culture both influences and is influenced by other countries through globalization.

Political Efficacy

A citizen's belief that their participation will actually make a difference. Low efficacy is 'why bother,' not laziness or ignorance, and it drives down turnout.

Political Ideology

A coherent set of beliefs about the proper role and scope of government. The main U.S. categories are liberal, conservative, and libertarian.

Political Party

An organization that runs candidates under its own label to win office. Its jobs include mobilizing and educating voters, recruiting candidates, writing platforms, and managing campaigns.

Political Socialization

The lifelong process by which people develop political beliefs, values, and behaviors. Family, schools, peers, media, and civic and religious groups are the main agents.

Politico Model

A representation style blending trustee and delegate approaches depending on the issue. The pragmatic middle ground most legislators actually use.

Popular Sovereignty

The principle that all government power flows from the consent of the governed. It's why elections and 'We the People' are the foundation of legitimacy, not a king.

Pork-Barrel Spending

Funding for localized projects tucked into a larger bill to benefit a specific district. A way legislators bring home benefits to constituents.

Power of the Purse

Congress's authority to fund or defund agencies and programs. Its most powerful lever for controlling the bureaucracy and the executive.

Precedent

A prior court decision that guides rulings in later similar cases. The building block of common law and stare decisis.

Prior Restraint

Government censorship that blocks expression before it's published. The Court strongly disfavors it, presuming it unconstitutional.

Procedural Due Process

Requires the government to use fair, non-arbitrary methods when affecting protected rights — proper notice, hearings, and procedures. The 'how' of government action.

Proportional Representation

A system that awards seats by vote share, so a party with 18% of votes gets roughly 18% of seats. The contrast that explains why winner-take-all crushes third parties.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on predictions of how a candidate or party will perform in the future. It looks forward at promises.

Public Opinion

The collective attitudes of citizens on issues, candidates, and government. It matters because policy at any given time reflects the views of those who choose to participate.

Q

Question Wording (Polling)

Whether a poll's questions are neutral or loaded. Leading, biased phrasing pushes respondents toward an answer and sabotages the data; neutral framing is a pillar of a scientific poll.

R

Random Sampling

Selecting respondents so every person has an equal chance of being chosen, which is what lets a poll be generalized to the whole population.

Rational Choice Voting

Voting for the candidate seen as best serving one's own self-interest, weighing costs and benefits. Self-interest is the standard.

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)

Struck down fixed racial admissions quotas while allowing race to be one factor among many. A foundational, divided ruling on affirmative action.

Republicanism

A system where citizens elect representatives to make decisions for them rather than voting on everything directly. Madison preferred it because it 'filters' raw public passion through deliberation.

Reserved Powers

Powers not given to the national government and not denied to the states, which the Tenth Amendment reserves to the states or the people. Things like education and intrastate policing.

Retrospective Voting

Deciding whether to reelect based on the incumbent's recent record. It looks backward at performance that already happened.

Revenue Sharing

Federal funding distributed to states with almost no restrictions on use. The least-used and most state-friendly form of federal aid.

Right to Privacy

An unenumerated right the Court has read into the Constitution to shield personal decisions from government intrusion. The basis for landmark and contested rulings.

Riley v. California (2014)

Ruled that police generally need a warrant to search a cell phone seized during an arrest. Extended Fourth Amendment protection to digital data.

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Used substantive due process to extend the privacy right to abortion. Overturned in 2022, making it a key example of how precedent can be reversed.

Rule of Law

The principle that every person, even those in power, must follow and is held accountable to the same laws. A president charged like an ordinary citizen is the textbook example.

Rulemaking Authority

The power of agencies to create binding regulations that carry the force of law when implementing statutes. How a vague law like 'reduce pollution' becomes enforceable rules.

Rules Committee

The powerful House committee that sets the terms of debate — time limits and which amendments are allowed — before a bill reaches the floor. It controls the legislative gatekeeping.

S

Sampling Error

The unavoidable gap between any sample and the full population it represents, distinct from flaws in question wording or who responds.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Upheld limits on speech that creates a 'clear and present danger,' like urging draft resistance in wartime. An early case balancing speech against public safety.

Scientific Poll

A poll built for accuracy using random sampling, a calculated margin of error, neutrally worded questions, and honest reporting. Only it can be generalized to a larger population.

Second Amendment

Protects the right to keep and bear arms. Its scope — individual right vs. collective militia right — is heavily debated.

Selective Benefits

Goods and services available only to members, like AARP discounts, used to overcome the free-rider problem and give people a reason to join.

Selective Incorporation

The case-by-case process of applying Bill of Rights protections to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. How national liberties came to bind states.

Senate

The 100-member chamber where each state gets two senators serving six-year staggered terms. Smaller size allows for less-restricted debate, including the filibuster.

Separate but Equal

The doctrine from Plessy v. Ferguson allowing racial segregation if facilities were nominally equal. Used to justify Jim Crow until Brown struck it down.

Separation of Powers

Dividing government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each with its own powers. Prevents any single branch from monopolizing authority.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Held that racial gerrymandering — drawing a bizarrely shaped majority-minority district based predominantly on race — may violate the Equal Protection Clause. Limited race-based districting.

Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787)

An armed uprising of indebted Massachusetts farmers that the national government couldn't suppress for lack of a standing army. It exposed the Articles' fatal weaknesses and spurred the Constitutional Convention.

Signing Statement

A written presidential note issued when signing a bill, explaining how the executive interprets or intends to enforce it. An informal tool to shape a law's application.

Single-Issue Group

An organization focused on one narrow policy area and often unwilling to compromise, which lets it punch above its size through intensity.

Social Contract

An implicit agreement where people give up some freedom in exchange for government protection of order and rights. Locke's twist: if the government breaks the deal, the people can replace it.

Social Desirability Bias

When respondents give the answer that seems most socially acceptable rather than their true view, distorting poll results.

Social Movement

A broad effort by people pursuing a shared cause or worldview to affect society and policymaking, sometimes through protest rather than lobbying.

Soft Money

Loosely regulated funds raised by parties for activities like party-building and issue ads, which BCRA banned at the national-party level.

Stare Decisis

The doctrine that courts follow precedent when deciding cases with similar facts. Provides legal stability and predictability.

Straight-Ticket Voting

Voting for all of one party's candidates down the ballot.

Structural Barriers (Voting)

State laws and procedures that make voting easier or harder, such as registration rules, polling hours, voter ID, and absentee access. They are external rules, not internal beliefs.

Substantive Due Process

Examines whether a law itself unjustly infringes on fundamental rights, regardless of procedure. The basis for unenumerated rights like privacy.

Super PAC

A committee that can raise and spend unlimited money on independent expenditures like ads but cannot contribute to or coordinate with a candidate, unlike a traditional PAC.

Supply-Side Economics

A fiscal approach that uses tax cuts and lighter regulation to spur production and investment.

Supremacy Clause

Article VI provision making the Constitution and valid federal laws the supreme law of the land, overriding conflicting state laws. Settles federal-vs-state conflicts in favor of the nation.

Swing States

Competitive states where the outcome is genuinely in doubt. Winner-take-all makes safe states foregone conclusions, so candidates concentrate money and visits on swing states.

Symbolic Speech

Nonverbal action that communicates an idea or belief, like wearing an armband. The Court has held it's protected by the First Amendment.

T

Tenth Amendment

Reserves to the states (or the people) all powers not delegated to the national government. The constitutional anchor for states' rights arguments.

Third Party

A minor party outside the two major ones. It is hobbled by winner-take-all voting and by major parties co-opting its popular issues, yet it can still shape policy.

Three-Fifths Compromise

The agreement to count each enslaved person as three-fifths of a person for purposes of House representation and taxation. A morally fraught bargain that boosted Southern political power.

Time, Place, and Manner Restrictions

Content-neutral limits on when, where, and how speech occurs, like noise or permit rules. Allowed if they don't target the message itself.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

Held that students wearing black armbands to protest war was protected symbolic speech, since it didn't disrupt school. Students don't 'shed their rights at the schoolhouse gate.'

Title IX (1972)

Prohibits sex discrimination in any education program receiving federal funds, including athletics. Forced equal opportunities for women in schools and sports.

Tracking Poll

A poll repeated over time to follow how views of a candidate shift during a campaign. It measures change, not a starting point.

Trustee Model

A representation style where a legislator votes based on their own judgment of what's best, even against constituent opinion. Burke's idea of the independent representative.

Twenty-Second Amendment

Limits presidents to two elected terms, ratified after FDR won four. A direct constitutional response to fears of executive overreach.

U

U.S. Constitution

The 1787 blueprint for American government, drafted mainly by Madison. Functions as a social contract that establishes a limited government with separated, checked powers.

Unenumerated Rights

Rights not explicitly listed in the Constitution but recognized by the courts, like privacy. Defended via the Ninth Amendment and substantive due process.

United States v. Lopez (1995)

Struck down a federal gun-free-school-zones law as exceeding the Commerce Clause, since carrying a gun near a school isn't economic activity. A rare modern limit on federal commerce power.

V

Veracity of Public Opinion Data

The reliability and truthfulness of poll data. The 2016 election miss is the textbook reminder that polling credibility depends on methodology and is never guaranteed.

Veto

The president's formal power to reject a bill and send it back to Congress, which can override with a two-thirds vote in both chambers. A core executive check on the legislature.

Voter Turnout

The share of eligible people who vote. It is consistently higher in presidential years than midterms and is predicted by demographics and political efficacy.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Outlawed racial discrimination in voting, banning tools like literacy tests used to disenfranchise Black citizens. Dramatically expanded access to the ballot.

Voting Rights Amendments

The constitutional expansions of the franchise: 15th (Black men), 17th (direct election of senators), 19th (women), 24th (no poll tax), and 26th (age 18).

W

Wasted Vote Logic

The behavior where voters back a major party they like less because a third-party ballot feels thrown away under winner-take-all. A psychological effect, not a legal rule.

Winner-Take-All System

Single-member-district voting where only the top vote-getter wins, so a third party with broad-but-thin support gets nothing. It is the chief structural barrier entrenching the two-party system.

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

Held that the Free Exercise Clause let Amish parents remove children from school after 8th grade, overriding a compulsory-attendance law. Religious liberty trumped state education rules.

Where these terms show up

Every AP US Government & Politics term below belongs to one of the units on the exam. Each unit page has sample questions that put the vocabulary to work:

• Unit 1: Foundations of American Democracy
• Unit 2: Interactions Among Branches of Government
• Unit 3: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
• Unit 4: American Political Ideologies and Beliefs
• Unit 5: Political Participation